A question to start with
How many languages do you speak? Would you describe yourself as bilingual or
multilingual? If yes, then you belong to most humans on this planet, and an exciting
exchange could now begin between us, a dialogue between world citizens. Because
from a global perspective, multilingualism is the norm.
In a situation of global and socio-political upheaval, this text aims to contribute to a
well-founded discourse on language and languages in both a personal and an
educational context. We will look at the acceptance and promotion of languages and
attempt to provide definitions and categorisations. As the topic extends far into the
academic field and its goals, we will also deal with multilingualism in schools,
especially Montessori schools.
Definitions
What exactly is "multilingualism"? The word itself is a newcomer to the German
language; it was only included in the Duden dictionary in 1986, a decade later than the
corresponding English, French and Dutch terms found their way into the lexicons of their
languages. (1) The German term also differs in meaning and usage from the English
"multilingualism" in that it merely describes a state. In contrast, the English expression
with its ending "-ism" can also include an ideal or an objective. Suppose you want to
express the same in German. In that case, you must add another noun, resulting in
expressions such as a multilingualism concept, a multilingualism curriculum or a
multilingualism policy.
To define the term multilingualism, we approach it from two sides and focus
alternatively on the person or the group or society:
The term "multilingualism" refers to various forms of using more than one language,
which can be socially or institutionally conditioned or occur individually. (2)
Thus, a distinction is made between individual multilingualism (i.e., in the single
person), societal multilingualism (in multilingual countries such as Switzerland or
Belgium), and institutional multilingualism (e.g., in the institutions of the European
Union).
This article will focus on individual multilingualism, the ability of individuals to express
themselves in several languages. We often encounter the term "bilingual," a subtype of
multilingualism that refers to the ability to speak two languages. The term "plurilingual" is also sometimes used, with the meaning of competence in several languages. Anyone
who can speak a large number of languages is referred to as a "polyglot."
Who counts as multilingual?
The assessment of what constitutes a person's bilingualism or multilingualism has
changed and broadened in recent years, particularly in academic discourse. The most
common definition implies that these individuals can communicate in several
languages and that "the multilingual person can easily switch from one language to
another when necessary in most situations."(3) So, we can dispense with the myth that
bilingualism or multilingualism means comprehensive competence in all the languages
mentioned, in all subject areas and areas of life and at all language levels, which was
prevalent in the past. This makes it much easier to understand what is implied when
three-quarters of humanity (or more) are described as bilingual or multilingual.
Sometimes, we are talking about family or tribal languages that are important in a
particular social environment. These can be languages that are only used orally.
However, bilingualism and multilingualism also include the school and official
languages used in a country, which have close ties to the respective institutions and
their contexts. And, of course, there are also the lingua franca languages, above all,
English and Spanish, which enable communication in trade, diplomacy, administration
and science.
My former student Mariam is therefore not unusual. She comes from Ghana, like her
father, while her mother is from the Ivory Coast. Ghana has around 80 different
languages, 11 of which have official status. English is the official language and lingua
franca. In 2019, the government decided to make French another official language
because all of Ghana's neighbouring countries are francophone, and there is a French-
speaking minority in Ghana. Mariam speaks Baoulé, her mother's language, at home. At
school, she learnt Twi, the language she uses with her father and his family, English (the
language of instruction) and French. She speaks Agni because many of her friends do,
as well as Fante and Bono. She understands Dioula, Mossi and Hausa but only speaks a
few words in each of them. Since coming to Germany, Mariam has learnt German
quickly and well. She has now completed training as a nurse. Language, school,
education and training are essential issues for Mariam, as she expresses in the following
poem:
Illustration 1 We need to go to school (Mariam S.)
Forms of Individual Multilingualism
There are different forms of bilingualism or multilingualism. (4) One refers to whether a child acquires two languages simultaneously, e.g. because each parent communicates in a different language. This is referred to as bilingual first language acquisition. However, it is also possible that two languages are learnt one after the other, successively. A further distinction is made as to whether multilingualism arises naturally, through contact with people in the neighbourhood or in a controlled way, such as attending school or language courses. If we take Mariam's example, all forms of language acquisition can be found: simultaneous and successive, controlled and uncontrolled.
Multilingualism in Germany
Did you know, by the way, that Germany does not have an official language in the strict constitutional sense? Nevertheless, the federal government has designated German as the official language through simple laws and in various areas of legislation. There are also protected minority languages such as Frisian, Danish, Sorbian and Romani. Here are a few more interesting figures on the situation in Germany: according to the Federal Statistical Office, almost 80% of the population speak solely German at home. The language spoken at home has only been asked about in the micro census since 2017. Unfortunately, the question does not help to provide a differentiated overview of language skills in the country. The official data collection appears to be heavily focused on German language skills.
One can infer from this that the language surveyed is intended to reveal the degree of
social integration.(5) Germany is still characterised by a "monolingual habitus", a term
used by Ingrid Gogolin as early as 1994. So, how far away are we from the goal set by the
European Union? "Foreign language skills are regarded as a basic competence that
all EU citizens should acquire to increase their educational and employment
opportunities." The goal set for all EU citizens is trilingualism: by 2025, it should be
standard for people to speak two languages besides their mother tongue in the EU
educational area. (6)
While many people who migrate to Germany from other regions bring one or more
languages with them, there tends to be little interest in these unless they are so-called
prestige languages such as English, French or Spanish. German schools focus on
developing language skills in these languages. This is something that German native
speakers take for granted. Still, for many non-native speakers, learning a new language
besides German may pose a significant challenge. At the same time, their competence
in other foreign languages is largely ignored.
Educational policy goals
The prime objective of schools in Germany is to strengthen educational language skills
in German. Advanced German language skills are essential for academic success and
are also seen as the key to integration. Schools and lessons are generally monolingual -
i.e. taught in German, except foreign language classes. Here, too, the omnipresent
language hierarchy is evident: While English, French and Spanish, as well as Chinese
and Japanese, are respected languages, the learning of which is set as a goal and
encouraged at school, other languages, the typical immigrant languages, are not held in
the same esteem. Being bilingual in German-English or German-French is more
prestigious than being bilingual in German-Turkish or German-Arabic. And yet we know
today that every multilingual competence puts learners at an advantage, that the greater
their knowledge of a language they have already learnt, the easier it will be for them to
learn a new language. (7) In this respect, promoting every first language, prestigious or not,
would be worthwhile. Incidentally, this also applies to dialects, now regarded as
independent languages in multilingualism research.
Curricula for multilingualism
There are models for curricula that reflect the reality of multilingualism in our society
and build upon it. They are called the Comprehensive Language Curriculum(8) or the
Multilingual Curriculum(9) and postulate the utilisation of all of the language skills that
pupils bring with them. However, implementing such multilingualism concepts, which
incorporate and strengthen the home and family languages of a diverse student body, is
still rare, even though guidelines for kindergarten and school are already available,
primarily developed in EU-funded projects. (10)
Illustration 2 Language tree for the visualisation of language repertoires (EURAC)
This development is being promoted and advanced by the European Centre for Modern
Languages of the Council of Europe, which presented a reference framework for
pluralistic approaches to languages and cultures in 2015. The intention and hope is that
this will achieve the same significance as the Common European Framework of
Reference for Languages (CEFR). (11) Multilingualism, therefore, continues to be very
important in the context of the European Union.
Today, such approaches are mainly implemented where societies and educational
authorities proactively address the reality of multilingualism or minority languages, e.g.
South Tyrol, Switzerland or Finland. But even almost 10 years after the presentation of
the new multilingualism reference framework, the existing examples are mostly still only
flagship projects.
Montessori and foreign languages
Maria Montessori and her family, her son Mario and his four children, lived a polyglot life
that gave her grandchildren access to several European languages. The family language
remained Italian, but the children spoke English through their mother, the American
Helen Christy, and used Spanish at school in Barcelona. Since Maria Montessori always
took one or more grandchildren with her on her lecture tours, where they attended a
local Montessori school, they also became competent in German, French and Dutch. (12)
Although we can assume that Maria Montessori was conscious of and committed to her
grandchildren's multilingual development, she did not incorporate these experiences
into her pedagogical work. Only in the Erdkinderplan do we find a reference to learning
foreign languages. Teachers today are still working towards developing foreign language
learning according to the principles of Montessori education. (13)
Multilingual living environments implemented at Montessori institutions
Montessori casa dei bambini and schools in Germany, especially those run by private
organisations, have a far less linguistically and culturally heterogeneous student body
than many mainstream schools and daycare centres, especially those in large cities.
Regarding language skills, Montessori centres focus on traditional foreign languages in
the same way traditional schools do. In addition, some provide bilingual programmes
with native-speaking staff, especially from English-speaking countries. There are also
international Montessori institutions, especially in urban centres. International here
usually translates as English-speaking. There are three such preschools in the Munich
area, some in Frankfurt, Berlin, and elsewhere. These schools' working language is
exclusively English or English alongside German.
Montessori schools are addressing the challenges of the future in an increasingly
globalised world. An immersion programme is often used to promote this.
The following are three examples of the practical implementation of institutional
multilingualism in Montessori centres outside Germany. Each is pioneering, but none
can be easily replicated elsewhere.
Bilingual up on the mountain
The Montessori school of the social co-operative montessori.coop is located 800m
above the city of Bolzano in the small mountain village of Kohlern. The day starts at 8.00
am at the valley station in Bolzano and ends back at the valley station at around 1.00
pm. Even on the 5-minute cable car ride, you can hear a mixture of German and Italian.
This continues inside the building. The communal morning circle of all school children
from Year 1 to Year 8 is held in German, but an Italian-speaking colleague will
summarise the most relevant points in Italian. Each child then works with their chosen
social partners in the language that suits them best. A boy sits at a table with a German-
language maths card. While doing mental arithmetic, he says the figures out aloud in
Italian. The Welsh teacher speaks only English to students. Another colleague also
audibly and visibly uses her Czech mother tongue.
The secondary school pupils in Kohlern aim to pass the state final examination of the
German-speaking secondary school. This consists of two written examinations in
German and maths, respectively, as well as an oral examination that also tests language
skills in Italian and English. (14)
Illustration 3 On the daily journey home
Illustration 4 Blackboard calendar: English - Italian - German
Illustration 5 Seasons: German - Czech
An ideal image, and not just in terms of the landscape. And yet there are still questions
that the educational team in Colle is working on: How can we do equal justice to both
recognised national languages (Ladin plays no role here)? How can all children be more
motivated to use the other language? Why do German-speaking children find it easier to
learn and use Italian than Italian-speaking children to become competent in German?
Trilingual in north-east Thailand
In 20 years, Thailand has experienced rapid growth in Montessori institutions and,
together with Germany, is one of the countries with the most Montessori schools in the
world. (15) With government approval, mixed-age Montessori classes are integrated into
state schools in the poorest provinces. This allows them to continue to exist in small
towns and villages despite the exodus to the cities. In addition, private Montessori
schools are an attractive alternative for cosmopolitan middle-class parents looking for
an alternative to the rigid traditional national education system. The world language
English is an essential building block: many schools are bilingual in Thai-English.
Mandarin is offered at least as a foreign language but may also be provided as a third
working language in trilingual schools. This is due to the population structure, as Thai-
Chinese make up the most significant minority in the country, accounting for an
estimated 15 - 20 per cent of the population. Chinese is spoken at home in many
families. And China has become an increasingly important economic partner. With good
English and Chinese language skills, it is hoped that one's child will have better starting
opportunities in a society with great inequality. It seems to be easier for schools to find
English-speaking specialists than it is in Germany. For example, teachers come from the
Philippines, where English is the official and educational language. And young adults
from Europe or North America like to spend a social year in a Thai Montessori centre.
Illustration 6 Child with the movable alphabet for Thai
Illustration 7 Montessori material on the origin of Chinese characters
Quadrilingual on Lombok
In the world's fourth-largest country by population, the largest island nation, and the
country with the largest number of Muslims in the world, there are 65 Montessori
schools. One of them is the initiative of a German Montessori teacher with a heart for
children in need. Her Futura Indonesia Montessori school has been operating in Lombok
since 2015, and the secondary school building was inaugurated in 2022. Donations
enable the children to attend school and finance the equipment with Montessori
materials.
Illustration 8 Inauguration of the secondary school at Futura Indonesia
In addition to the national language, most Indonesians speak at least one of the more
than 700 indigenous languages fluently. For the local children and young people at
Futura Indonesia Montessori School, this is usually Sasak. All of them also learn
Indonesian, an artificial language that was created to unite the different ethnic groups of
the archipelago. Indonesian is the language of instruction and the language the children
learn to read and write first. The children at Futura Indonesia learn German as their first
additional language and English as a further language. An unusual sequence, as founder
Gabi Swoboda admits. However, it is easier for Indonesian children to learn German
because the written language, like Indonesian, is largely phonetic. Gabi often uses
German in the reading learning process because the children have to read the less
familiar German words accurately. When reading the more familiar Indonesian, they
quickly guess the word once they have recognised the first letters. German is easier for
these children to learn than English. The English language is introduced in a playful way
in the children's house. Meanwhile, the children of German families who have moved to
Lombok also attend the Montessori school. Here, they have the opportunity to maintain
contact with their first language, German, while immersing themselves in Indonesian.
Illustration 9 Word type work in Indonesian
Will the children need German one day? For many of them, the question does not arise;
they learn with enthusiasm and the beautiful Montessori materials donated from
Germany.
Illustration 10 Pin-gu-in: Pupils with syllable cards
Multilingual future
Multilingualism is an everyday phenomenon worldwide. Even in German-speaking
countries, schools in general and Montessori schools in particular will not be able to
avoid focussing more on multilingualism. And we will hopefully all realise what a great
benefit this can be for our coexistence and how we can make a sustainable contribution
to a more peaceful society, offering opportunities for everyone to participate. The two
concepts that will be presented in conclusion will show how this can be realised in
practice and where we can find orientation and inspiration:
Bilingual Montessori platform
The Bilingual Montessori platform was born out of the desire and need to build a
transnational community of Montessori teachers teaching more than one language in
their schools. As part of an EU-funded Erasmus project, a virtual centre has been
created since 2022 where practical advice, in-depth knowledge and further training
opportunities can be exchanged. (16) A free webinar library with presentations on language
teaching, school organisation and other relevant topics is available to interested parties
from all countries and institutions. A "Field Guide" is also being created, a manual with
tried and tested teaching and administrative practices that can serve as a " roadmap" for
other Montessori schools. This is the kind of networking professionals and school
administrators in the Montessori world have long wished for in the field of languages.
A multilingual workshop concept
Finally, I would like to present a model for children's houses and primary schools that
implements the basic ideas of peace education: the language workshop.
In this context, the term "workshop" is understood as a space for exploring ideas and
experimenting with different languages that the children bring from their families or that
can be found in their environment or the institution. And teaching staff often bring very
different language skills along with them that can be incorporated here.
Tine Gottstein initially developed and implemented this concept for the Montessori
children's house in Munich's Olympiapark. In the meantime, it has also found its way
into Year 1/2 at the Campus di Monaco International Montessori School in Munich.
Illustration 11 The numbers in Arabic
Illustration 12 A new language and script: Hindi
Here, the children in the first two years of school (aged six to seven) learn about the
linguistic diversity of their class and their families, their social and digital environment
and our globalised world. Based on direct experiences, adventures, knowledge and
questions, a lively encounter with languages and scripts evolves within the framework of
the language workshop, involving the creative and cultural competencies of the school
staff and parents, older siblings and classmates, as well as cooperation partners and
voluntary supporters. The aim is not to develop specific language skills but to promote
what is so fittingly termed a multilingual mindset.
The equal treatment of all available languages creates openness, interest, the desire to
try things out, sharpening of perceptions, recognition of one's identity and that of others,
discovery of similarities, and respect for differences. In this way, we can help establish
multilingualism not only as an attribution of language competence but also as a
common goal, a vision, and an attitude toward social coexistence.
Language work thereby becomes peace work in the best sense of Maria Montessori.
Illustration 13 Practising the home language Ukrainian
_____________________________
1 Coulmas 2018: 28
2 Riehl 2014: 9
3 Oksaar 1980: 43
4 Riehl 2014: 11-12
5 Eagle 2019: 203
6 Olivier Yves Alain Renard / Kristina Milt (2023): Language policy. Fact Sheets on the European
Union/European Parliament 03-2023
7 Jeuk2 2018: 41
8 developed under the leadership of Hans-Jürgen Krumm
9 co-developed and described by Britta Hufeisen
10 for example, the materials developed by EURAC Research in South Tyrol for kindergarten, primary
and secondary schools
12 As described by her great-granddaughter Carolina Montessori in "Maria Montessori Writes to Her Grandchildren, letters from India, 1939 - 1946".
13 The handbook "Learning English according to Maria Montessori" (Berger/Eßwein 2016) is a guide here.
14 https://news.provinz.bz.it/de/news/mittel-und-oberschule-klarheit-uber-staatliche-abschlussprufungen
15
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